The Exception to Rule 12(d): Incorporation by Reference of Matters Outside the Pleadings
https://lawreview.uchicago.edu/print-archive/exception-rule-12d-incorporation-reference-matters-outside-pleadings
This Comment explores the history of Rule 12(d), describes courts’ varying uses of the exception, and proposes a unifying method of interpretation for the future. Drawing on other procedural rules and an analogous doctrine in contract law, it argues that only unmistakably referenced written instruments may be incorporated.